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This research topic aims to integrate scattered findings on sex differences in neuroscience into a broader theory of how the human brain is shaped by sex and sex hormones in order to cause the great variety of sex differences that are commonly observed. It can be assumed that these differences didn’t occur arbitrarily, but that they rather determined and still determine evolutionary success of individuals and were shaped by the processes of natural and in particular sexual selection. Therefore, sex differences are not negligible and sex difference research cannot be discriminating against one sex or the other. In fact a better understanding of the underlying causes of sex differences has great advantages for both men and women and society as a whole, not only in terms of health care, but in every aspect of life. Gender equality can only work out if it is equally well understood for men and women what their individual resources and needs are. Therefore, it is of great importance to pave the way for identifying the underlying principles of structural and functional brain organization that cause men and women to act, think and feel differently. To this end it is of particular interest to identify possible similarities and interrelations between sex differences that did so far stand separately, in order to investigate whether they share a common source. To understand, where a specific sex difference comes from and whether or not it is caused by the same principle as other sex differences, it is necessary to explicitly link sex differences in behavior to their neuronal correlates and vice versa link sex differences in brain structure and function to their behavioral outcomes. In particular a new understanding of male and female brain functioning may arise from findings on how sex hormones interact with various neurotransmitter systems. In the past few years several findings demonstrated that women’s behavior is influenced by the sex hormone fluctuations they experience naturally during their menstrual cycle to the extent that sex differences may only be detectable in one cycle phase but not another. The study of menstrual cycle dependent effects gives important hints about which sex differences are activational and which are organizational. Additionally it only recently came to attention, that hormonal contraception may alter a women’s mood, cognition and behavior as a consequence of changes in brain structure and function. The underlying mechanisms are so poorly understood that it is even hard to predict, whether hormonal contraception will mask or amplify sex differences in a given task. Since the oral hormonal contraceptive pill is meanwhile used by 100 million women worldwide and even by teenagers whose brains are not yet fully developed, the question of how the synthetic steroids contained in hormonal contraceptives act on the brain is to be studied hand in hand with naturally occurring sex differences. This topic summarizes the current state of the art in sex difference research and gives new perspectives in terms of hypothesis generation an methodology. Both are necessary to gain a complete picture of what it is that makes a brain male or female and move towards a neuroscience of sex differences.

sex differences --- sex hormones --- Menstrual Cycle --- hormonal contraceptives --- Menopause --- brain structure --- brain function --- neurotransmitters --- sex role

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Volume 2 "Issues in Child Welfare" is primarily concerned with how best to respond to maltreatment ‘within’ the family and hence has a range of papers which are much more concerned with the area of policy and practice more traditionally framed in terms of ‘child welfare’ and social work with children and families. It also includes a paper on how to respond to child maltreatment and neglect in a large hospital context.

child abuse --- child protection --- child maltreatment --- public protection --- the role of state --- family and community --- family support --- social surveillance --- risk to children

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Cognitive linguistic research suggests that Slavic verbal prefix semantics may be profitably described by assuming a spatial prototype, and that non-spatial (abstract) prefixes derive metaphorically from this prototype. This dissertation uses a cognitive linguistic framework to establish a concise, systematic description of prototypes for prefixes and prepositions in Russian and Czech, and evaluates the nature of the relationship among the various senses of prefixes. The research presented here is aimed at carefully establishing the spatial meaning of prefixes. The primary motive for this research, however, is to evaluate the nature of the relation between spatial uses and abstract uses and to determine if abstract uses do indeed involve primarily spatial metaphor. A significant portion of the dissertation, therefore, is devoted to a discussion of the connection between spatial and abstract prefixation. A secondary purpose is to compare the spatial and abstract uses of prefixes in Czech and Russian, and to see whether differences in the verbal systems of these two languages can be correlated with underlying semantic differences at the spatial level.

Czech --- Experience --- Goal orientation in narration --- prefix semantics --- Prefixation --- Prefixes and deixis --- Privileged --- Prototype vs. invariance --- Role --- Russian --- Semantic features for Path preposition --- Shull --- Space --- Spacial

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Eine der wichtigsten Innovationen der Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft Westafrikanischer Staaten (ECOWAS) ist die eindeutige Gewährung einer supranationalen Rolle an den Gerichtshof der Organisation. Sein Menschenrechtsmandat hat jedoch zu realen und potenziellen Spannungen innerhalb der ECOWAS-Rechtsordnung geführt.Die Spannungen ergeben sich aus der Rechtskraft von Urteilen von Verfassungsgerichten der Mitgliedstaaten und der Zulässigkeit von Individualbeschwerden vor dem Gerichtshof. Diese Arbeit zeigt einige Mängel in der derzeitigen Regelung des Menschenrechtsmandats des Gerichtshofs auf. Lücken bestehen sowohl auf der Ebene der verfassungsmäßigen Ordnung der Mitgliedstaaten als auch auf der Ebene der Gemeinschaft. Die supranationale Menschenrechtsgerichtsbarkeit muss durch die Möglichkeit umgesetzt werden, konkrete Abhilfemaßnahmen zur Behebung von Menschenrechtsverletzungen an die betroffenen Mitgliedsstaaten anzuordnen. In dieser Arbeit werden innovative Lösungen vorgeschlagen, um prozessuale und substantielle Lücken im etablierten Menschenrechtsschutzsystem in Westafrika zu schließen.

ECOWAS, Constitutional Court, court of justice, Economic Community of West African States, ECOWAS-Court of Justice, Human Rights litigation, effective protection, the obligation of reparation, due process, State liability, binding effect, supranational role, substantive res judicata, the principle of subsidiarity, exhaustion of local remedies, Individual Complaints Procedure

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This open access book offers a comparative study of eight ambitious national reforms that sought to create opportunities for students to gain the necessary breath of skills to thrive in a rapidly changing world. It examines how national governments transform education systems to provide students opportunities to develop such skills. It analyses comprehensive education reforms in Brazil, Finland, Japan, Mexico, Peru, Poland, Portugal and Russia and yields original and important insights on the process of educational change. The analysis of these 21st century skills reforms shows that reformers followed approaches which are based on the five perspectives: cultural, psychological, professional, institutional and political. Most reforms relied on institutional and political perspectives. They highlight the systemic nature of the process of educational change, and the need for alignment and coherence among the various elements of the system in order. They underscore the importance of addressing the interests of various stakeholders of the education system in obtaining the necessary impetus to initiate and sustain change. In contrast, as the book shows, the use of a cultural and psychological frame proved rarer, missing important opportunities to draw on systematic analysis of emerging demands for schools and on cognitive science to inform the changes in the organization of instruction. Drawing on a rich array of sources and evidence the book provides a careful account of how education reform works in practice.

International and Comparative Education --- Educational Policy and Politics --- Curriculum Studies --- Administration, Organization and Leadership --- Open Access --- transformation of public education systems --- role of curriculum --- Deeper Learning --- Twenty first century skills --- Socio-emotional development --- education reform --- Education Policy --- Education Leadership --- Systemic educational change --- Comparative education --- Education in Finland --- Education in Japan --- Education in Brazil --- Education in Mexico --- Education in Poland --- Education in Russia --- Education in Peru --- Education in Portugal --- Education --- Educational strategies & policy --- Curriculum planning & development --- Educational administration & organization